Unit 5 Reflection

One of the essential understandings of Unit 5 was our Genetic Code: DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid, its' Double Helix structure, the 3 parts of Nucleotides, how its' antiparallel, how the backbones run in opposite 5' to 3" directions from each other, the Nitrogen Bases and its' two types (Double rings: purines, Single rings: pyrimidines), the Base Pair Rules ("A" goes with "T", "G" goes with "C"), and its' function, which is a place of information for proteins. Another essential understanding was about how DNA is a copy machine: Semi-conservative Replication, which is the process of creating two identical strands of DNA from one strand, each resulting strand ending up with half of the original strand. "Walking the Dogma" was also a essential understanding in Unit 5. We learned about the structural differences between DNA and RNA, the functions of RNA (serves as temporary copy of a gene, delivers the copy to the ribosomes, and ribosomes using RNA to make proteins), Transcription (process where RNA Polymerase reads and copies the DNA code for a protein as mRNA copy) and Translation, which results in a protein. We also learned about Mutations, changes in the DNA code, Mutagon, anything that causes a mutation, point mutations, a change in 1 or 2 base pairs of DNA, when it's less and more harmful, the two type of point mutations, substitution and frameshift mutation, gene expression (process of a gene being used to produce a gene product or phenotype), and gene regulation (mechanism used by cells to increase or decrease the expression of a gene).

In this unit, my strengths were the Base Pair Rules and Transcription and Translation. I also believe that mutations were another strength of mine. For me, these topics were easy to understand and very interesting, I enjoyed going through the process of learning about these topics. I guess it was easy for me to understand them because I found them interesting, which made me eager to learn about them. I was very surprised by the fact that in this unit, I had few weaknesses. I still don't fully understand the whole antiparallel direction that our DNA goes in and memorizing the structural differences between DNA and RNA will definitely be hard for me. From these experiences, I didn't learn any new skills but I did learn a lot more about us human beings and what goes on inside us so yes I do believe that I'm a better student today than yesterday. I would like to learn more about our brain and how our emotions work. I don't have any unanswered questions about the topic that we've done but I really would like to learn about us mentally. I tend to wonder about what goes on inside our bodies that make us feel the certain emotions we feel and I think it would be interesting to learn about that. Last unit I took the Vark Questionnaire and since visual learning was supposedly one of my strong points, I decided to search up pictures that show the process of Transcription and Translation, since at first I was a bit confused about the processes. Once I had studied the drawings, the processes became a lot more clear and understandable for me, to the point where it became one of my strengths in this unit. I would say it went pretty well and that in the next unit, I'll definitely be doing more of that.

Protein Synthesis Lab

1. The process of making proteins (aka protein synthesis) follows the following steps: The first phase is called Transcription, which is when the copy is made. First, a section of DNA, known as a gene, is copied by an enzyme, then, the copy that's produced, called messenger RNA or mRNA for short, leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm. The second phase is called Translation, which is when the copy is used to make a protein. First, the ribosome reads the first three bases, called codons, then it determines which amino acid corresponds with that sequence and adds them. When the amino acids are bonded together and the mRNA is done being translated, the amino acid chain folds up to become a protein.

2. The mutations that seemed to have the greatest effect to the proteins are insertions and deletions since they're frameshift mutations, which alters the whole Amino Acid sequence. The mutation that seemed to have the least effect to the proteins is substitution since it only effects one base pair. It does matter where the mutation occurs because there are specific codons that starts the Amino Acid sequence and if the mutation occurs in the beginning then it'll change the whole sequence while if it occurs near the end then it'll only change a small part of the sequence.

3. The mutation that I chose was deletion. I chose this mutation because it's one of the mutations that have the greatest effect to the proteins and I wanted to see how different the code would end up. Compared to other mutations, this mutation has the most effect on the proteins, therefore also the result of the code. The original Amino Acid Sequence was Met-Tyr-Lys-His-Val-Ile-Asn-Cys-Ile but with the deletion of the first G from the DNA strand the Amino Acid Sequence ended up to be Met-Thr-Cys-Asp-Gin-Leu-Tyr-Leu. Again, yes it does matter where the mutation occurs because there are specific codons that start the Amino Acid sequence and if the mutation occurs in the beginning then it'll change the whole sequence while if the mutation occurs near the end then it'll only change a small part of the sequence. In my case, the mutation was at the start so the Amino Acid completely changed.

4. Mutations can affect our life by making us be different, look different, act different, and/or feel differently than others. A example of a mutation is heterochromia iridium, two different-colored eyes within a single individual. This condition is caused by the alteration in the expression of two genes that control eye color: EYCL3, on chromosome 15, which codes for brown/blue eye color, and EYCL1, on chromosome 19, which codes for green/blue eye color.

Human DNA Extraction Lab

The question of this lab was "How can DNA be separated from cheek cells in order to study it?" I found that DNA can be separated from cheek cells, in order to study it, by scraping cheek cells and than mixing the saliva, that contains the cheek cells, with Gatorade, salt, detergent, pineapple juice, and alcohol. Specific evidence that supports my claim is how when the saliva, containing the cheek cells, the gatorade, the salt, the detergent, and the pineapple juice were mixed and topped off separately with the alcohol, there were strand like material, the color of the gatorade, that had risen up to the surface of the alcohol. The strand like material was my DNA. This evidence supports my claim because: in order for DNA to be separated from cheek cells, the cell walls/membranes, plasma membranes, and the nuclear material must first be broken down. This is done by homogenizing the cell tissue with polar liquid. The sodium chloride (salt) was then added to the solution to facilitate the precipitation by shielding the negative phosphate ends of the DNA. Next, in order to lyse the cell membrane and to emulsify the lipids and proteins of the cell, soap was added. Pineapple juice, which contained catabolic proteases, was then added to further break down any histones, type of protein, that the DNA molecule had wrap itself around. When the 95% isopropanol alcohol is layered separately on top of the mixture, the DNA falls out of the solution as a precipitate right at the interface of the two solutions since the alcohol is nonpolar, and the DNA is polar. One error that could've occurred in this experiment is that the procedure that my group and I chose to follow was not the correct procedure. This error could've effected our results by making our DNA not as apparent as it should've been or not apparent at all. Another error that could've occurred in this experiment are students not swishing the Gatorade in their mouth long enough for it to get the cheek cells needed in order to get the DNA. This error could've effected our results by also not making the DNA as apparent as it should be or not apparent at all. Two recommendations that would improve the experimental procedure so that these and other possible errors could be minimized/removed is to really use the information given in the lab as an advantage and to follow directions precisely, especially if it involves time. The purpose of this lab was to see how DNA can be extracted with different solutions, to understand the three basic steps of homogenization, lysis, and precipitation, to see its' appearance. In class, I learned about DNA and its' structure (double helix:2 strands twisted around each other) and this lab helped give me a visual example by its' result being the extraction of my DNA.This lab experiment could be applied to other situations by the chance that if someone ever needs help on extracting their DNA for any certain reason, I would know how to do it and would be able to help them.

Coin Sex Lab Relate and Review

In this lab, my partner and I flipped coins marked with specific alleles, different variations of a gene, on each side in order to see how probability is used to predict what an offspring genes would be. Coins serve as a model for genetics concepts for they have a 50% percent probability chance, which means they can represent alleles, and the coins together can represent the make up of the genetic material of the zygote, or fertilized egg. The first part of our lab, Sex of offspring, asked the question, "Can you predict whether you will have a boy or a girl?" We flipped two coins, which were either marked X or Y on both sides, simultaneously 10 times in order to get the genotype (XY, XX), thus also the phenotype (female or male). With the monohybrid cross, which is when homozygous dominant are cross with homozygous recessive, there is a 50% probability for having either a male offspring or female offspring. The ratio we got instead was 7:3 (male to female). Though our ratio was off, due to either determining the phenotype of a genotype incorrectly or not flipping the coins the right way, predicting the possibility of having a male or female child is possible, though the prediction might not be for sure. The second part of our lab, Autosomal Dominance, which is when the dominant allele is not sex-linked, asked the question, "If bipolar disorder does not run in your family, but you marry someone who has bipolar disorder, what is the probability that your children will have it? (Assuming spouse is heterozygous for the trait)" With the punnet square, we concluded that there is a 50% probability of the offspring having bipolar disorder. We used two coins, one labeled "b" on both sides and the other labeled "B" on one side and "b" on the other side. We then proceeded to flip the two coins simultaneously 10 times. Our ratio, though again off, was 8:2 (Bipolar individuals to nonbipolar individuals).Our actual result could've differed to our expected result due to errors in determining the phenotype of a genotype. We also found that our result was improbable. The third part of our lab, X-Linked recessive, asked the question, "Why do males have colorblindness more often than females? What is the probability of having a colorblind child if the mom is a carrier and the dad has normal color vision?" Before my partner and I actually started the procedure we decided to find out what X-linked inheritance was, we found that it was when an organism inherits the gene responsible for a trait from the x chromosome. Using the punnet square, we then moved on to find the probability which was 25%. Using two coins, one marked X^B on one side and X^b on the other side and one marked X^B on one side and Y on the other side, we found the genotypes and phenotypes by flipping the two coins simultaneously. The genotypic ratio we ended up with was 4:2:1:3. We also concluded that males have colorblindness more often than females because they control the x chromosome. Our actual result could've differed to our expected result due to errors in determining the phenotype of a genotype. In our dihybrid cross, where double homozygous dominant is crossed with double homozygous recessive, simulation, our expected result were 9 individuals with brown hair and brown eyes, an example of homozygous, 3 individuals with brown hair and blue eyes, an example of heterozygous, 3 individuals with blond hair and brown eyes, and 1 individual with blond hair and blue eyes; A phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1. Our actual results were 12 individuals with brown hair and brown eyes, 1 individual with brown hair and blue eyes, 2 individuals with blond hair and brown eyes, and 1 individual with blond hair and blue eyes. Instead of a 9:3:3:1 ratio, my partner and I got a 12:1:2:1 ratio. Our actual result could've differed to our expected result due to errors in determining the phenotype of a genotype or flipping the coins incorrectly. With these results, and the phenotypic ratio that my partner and I concluded to, I can attribute that the phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1 does not apply to every case, though it is a good foundation to follow. Another important note to mention is how the Law of Independent Assortment was applied here. The Law of Independent Assortment states that gene pairs separate randomly or independently from each other during meiosis, the process of making gametes in testes or ovaries, in this case, the gene pairs were separated randomly/independently from each other in order to form the phenotypes (ex: BE, bE, Be, be). The limit of using probability to predict offspring's traits is that it is not a certainty and only predicts what the offspring's traits could possibly be, not what it will be for sure. Probability is just the number that an event can occur over the total number of possible outcomes while certainty is something that will actually really happen. Also, when the recombination of genes happen, something, in which the Punnet Square didn't predict, could occur. One way this relates to my life is it lets me understand how I got specific traits, like having my mom's dominant wavy hair trait and not my dad's recessive straight hair trait. It also lets me understand how there are cases in which people have green eyes while their parents have brown eyes because the green eye trait skipped a generation since it was recessive.

Unit 4 Reflection

Unit 4 was about the Cell Cycle (reasons for it and its' steps), types of reproduction (benefits and costs), chromosomes (oddities, all other traits, and homologous chromosomes), sex cells, haploids and diploids, gametes, the steps of Meiosis, Crossing Over, genes, traits, Gregor Mendel and his works, the punnet square, types of inheritance, genetic exceptions and complications, and different type of crosses. In Unit 4, my strength were probably types of reproduction and punnet squares. I found it very easy to understand and memorize the types of reproduction, Sexual and Asexual reproduction, and their benefits and costs. Punnet squares and types of reproduction were probably my strengths because I've gone through them before and had understand them already. My weaknesses were probably everything else. I found it very hard to memorize and be able to separate terms from each other. I also found it very hard to remember all the steps of Meiosis. There was so much information given all at once and it was hard to consume it all. I don't think it's that I don't understand because I feel like I do, but I just think that there was so much new information all at once and it was just hard to remember each specific term and not mess up a term for another term. I definitely learned a lot of new material. Everything was new for me except for the types of reproduction and the punnet square. For skills, I don't think I learned anything new but next time I'm definitely going to study sooner. I made a mistake this time and procrastinated on studying, so I ended up with really short time to go over everything. The info-graphic really made a lot more of the material more clear and it helped me understand them more. It helped me understand the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis more and it also helped me understand Genetic Inheritance more. I definitely do believe that I'm a better student today than yesterday because now I know so much more material about us human beings, and I understand the importance of time more and how I should not procrastinate on studying. Though this unit was interesting, I don't have any questions and would like to move on and learn about a different part of humans. Now that we know the physical part of us I think it would be cool to learn about the mental part of us (how our brains work, why we feel certain emotions, etc.) From the VARK Questionnaire, my preferred learning styles are Reading/Writing and Visual. I scored a 12 on Reading/Writing and a 11 on Visual. On Aural and Kinesthetic, I got an 8. The results didn't surprise me, I was expecting something very similar. In order to play with my studying strengths as I prepare for the upcoming test, I will definitely write out more Relate and Reviews for concepts I'm not comfortable with. I'll also draw out representations of them if possible.

Genetics Infographic: "Bachelors of Science in Genetics"

Photosynthesis Virtual Labs

Photosynthesis Virtual Labs.

Lab 1: Glencoe Photosynthesis Lab

http://www.glencoe.com/sites/common_assets/science/virtual_labs/LS12/LS12.html

Analysis Questions

1. Make a hypothesis about which color in the visible spectrum causes the most plant growth and which color in the visible spectrum causes the least plant growth?

If the color in the visible spectrum is red or blue, then the plant will grow the most.

If the color in the visible spectrum is  green or yellow, then the plant will grow the least.

2. How did you test your hypothesis? Which variables did you control in your experiment and which variable did you change in order to compare your growth results?

I tested my hypothesis by planting the same seed in different lights for 30 days. The variable I controlled in my experiment is the type of plant and the variable I changed in order to compare my growth results are the different color of lights that I changed.

Results:

Filter Color	Spinach Avg. Height (cm)	Raddish Avg. Height (cm)	Lettuce Avg. Height (cm)
Red		13
Orange		8
Green		2
Blue		14
Violet		11

3. Analyze the results of your experiment. Did your data support your hypothesis? Explain. If you conducted tests with more than one type of seed, explain any differences or similarities you found among types of seeds.

Yes, my data did support my hypothesis because I predicted that the red and blue light would stimulate the most growth in plants and in the end the plants that grew the most was under the red and blue light. The average for the red light is 13 cm and the average for the blue light is 14 cm.

4. What conclusions can you draw about which color in the visible spectrum causes the most plant growth?

I can come to the conclusion that the color blue in the visible spectrum causes the most plant growth.

5. Given that white light contains all colors of the spectrum, what growth results would you expect under white light?

The growth result I would expect under the white light is a normal rate, one that’s not the highest or lowest.

Site 2: Photolab

http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/photolab.swf

This simulation allows you to manipulate many variables. You already observed how light colors will affect the growth of a plant, in this simulation you can directly measure the rate of photosynthesis by counting the number of bubbles of oxygen that are released.

There are 3 other potential variables you could test with this simulation: amount of carbon dioxide, light intensity, and temperature.

Choose one variable and design and experiment that would test how this factor affects the rate of photosynthesis. Remember, that when designing an experiment, you need to keep all variables constant except the one you are testing. Collect data and write a lab report of your findings that includes:

• Question
• Hypothesis
• Experimental parameters (in other words, what is the dependent variable, independent variable, and control?)
• Data table
• Conclusion (Just 1st and 3rd paragraphs since there's no way to make errors in a virtual lab)

*Type this document on a word processor or in Google Docs and submit via Canvas.

Question: Under the intensity of 25 of the blue light, which degree of temperature causes the plant to release the most bubbles?

Hypothesis: If the degree of temperature is 40 under the intensity of 25 of the blue light, then the plant will release the most bubbles.

Experimental parameter: The dependent variable is the number of bubbles that were released, the independent variable is the degree of temperature, and the control is the plant.

Data table:

	Blue light: Intensity of 25	Blue light: Intensity of 25	Blue light: Intensity of 25	Blue light: Intensity of 25
Temperature (degrees)	# of bubbles in 15 seconds	# of bubbles in 30 seconds	# of bubbles in  45 seconds	# of bubbles in 60 seconds
10	3	5	8	11
25	4	11	17	25
40	7	13	19	26

Conclusion:

In this lab, I asked the question “Under the intensity of 25 of the blue light, which degree of temperature causes the plant to release the most bubbles?” I found that if the degree of temperature is 40 under the intensity of 25 of the blue light, then the plant will release the most bubbles. When the water in the container was 10 degrees, the plant gave off 11 bubbles in a minute. When it was 25 degrees, the plant gave off 25 bubbles in a minute. And when it was 40 degrees, the plant gave off 26 bubbles in a minute. My evidence supports my hypothesis because the plant gave off the most bubbles, which are 26 bubbles, when the degree was the highest, which is 40 degrees.

This lab was done to demonstrate how different variables can affect plant growth. It also gives more information about photosynthesis. From this lab, I learned that the warmer the water that the plant is in, the better the plant grows. This helps me understand the concept of photosynthesis more. Based on my experience from this lab, whenever I want to grow a healthy plant I will know to make sure that I grow it in warm water.  

Unit 3 Reflection

Unit 3 was about cell structure and it's function, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration. The themes and essential understandings of this unit was how life is cellular, eukaryotic cell structures, cell boundaries, the diversity of cellular life, energy and life, the overview of photosynthesis, the reactions of photosynthesis, chemical pathways, and the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport.

When it came to all the cell related topics and cellular respiration, it was fairly easy for me. It got a bit harder for me when the topic of photosynthesis came in.

I believe I'm a better student now because from this unit I've learned more about cell structure and their function, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration. I'm also better at taking notes and knowing what's important and what's not from the textbook now.

I think I would like to learn more about cells now. I don't have any unanswered questions about cells or the other topics but I would like to learn more about cells. It's interesting learning about what makes us living human beings.

Since the test is coming up, I'm definitely studying by going through my vodcast notes and textbook notes. I'm also planning on taking, if not all then most, of the CFU's for the vodcast notes. And for the diagrams, I'm planning on drawing them again and again until they're stuck in my mind. I've seen the Studying and Learning Page, and I think I'll try out the flashcard method; I've never used flashcards before so I'm interested in how this will turn out.

Egg Cell Macromolecules Lab Analysis

The question of this lab was "Can macromolecules be identified in an egg cell?"

Macromolecules could mostly be identified in egg yolk. In the egg yolk, for the Monosaccharide, Polysaccharide, and Protein test, the macromolecule was present. In the Lipid test, the macromolecule wasn't present, having the quantitative amount of macromolecule of 0 and not changing colors. In the Monosaccharide test, the egg yolk had a quantitative amount of macromolecule of 5, turning slightly purple. In the Polysaccharide test, the egg yolk had a quantitative amount of 4, turning light brown. In the Protein test, the egg yolk had a quantitative amount of 7, turning a bit clear. These evidences support my claim because the quantitative amount and the colors that the egg parts changed to show that the macromolecule was/wasn't present.

Macromolecules can be identified in the egg membrane. In the egg membrane, for the Monosaccharide, Polysaccharide, Protein, and Lipid test, the macromolecule was present. In the Monosaccharide test, the egg membrane had a quantitative amount of macromolecules of 8, turning purple. In the Polysaccharide test, the egg membrane had a quantitative amount of macromolecule of 6, turning brown. In the Protein test, the egg membrane had a quantitative amount of 5, turning light purple. In the Lipid test, the egg membrane had a quantitative amount of 3, turning pinkish. These evidences support my claim because the quantitative amount and the colors that the egg parts changed to show that the macromolecule was/wasn't present.

Macromolecules can be identified in the egg whites. In the egg whites, for the Monosaccharide, Polysaccharide, Protein, and Lipid test, the macromolecules were present. In the Monosaccharide test, the egg white had a quantitative amount of macromolecule of 3, turning blue. In the Polysaccharide test, the egg white had a quantitative amount of macromolecule of 5, turning dark brown. In the Protein test, the egg white had a quantitative amount of 6, turning purple. In the Lipid test, the egg white had a quantitative amount of 5, turning pinkish. These evidences support my claim because the quantitative amount and the colors that the egg parts changed to show that the macromolecule was/wasn't present.

One error that could've occurred in this lab were that some of my group members could've put in less drops then what was required for the egg part. This could've affected the results by not allowing the macromolecules a chance to appear in the egg part. A second error could've been the accuracy of the quantitative amount of macromolecules. Since the quantitative amount of macromolecule was completely based off a person's opinion, it can't be the most accurate. This would affect the results by making them not entirely true or false.

A way to improve the experimental procedure so that errors could be minimized or removed are to always be careful with any solution you might be handling and to constantly interact with your group members throughout the lab.

The purpose of this lab was to see if macromolecules can be identified in an egg cell. In this lab we tested the different egg parts for the certain macromolecule we were looking for. Before this lab, we had already gone through the different type of macromolecules. We also learned beforehand what to use in order to test for its presence and how to know if it's present.

This lab experiment could be applied to other experiments by applying where macromolecules are, how to find them, and how to know when they're there.

Generating Questions Assignment

Out of all the big 20 questions, I'm most interested in the question "What is consciousness?". I'm interested in this question because to me the human brain is something very complex that I would like to figure out. There is no official hypothesis for the question but it is known that it involves different brain regions networked together.

List of 20 Questions:
1) Can we restore humans?
2) Is it possible to make an artificial planet?
3) Will we ever be able to naturally fly?
4) Who are we really?
5) Can we freeze time?
6) Can we pause our emotions?
7) Is there a parallel universe?
8) Can we stop missing someone?
9) Is society getting any better?
10) How exactly would people in the past react to how we live now?
11) How will music be like in 3000?
12) Will humans ever become extinct?
13) Will humans forever be the more powerful creature?
14) Why do students procrastinate so much?
15) Is the 21st generation the laziest generation?
16) Why are humans so dependent?
17)  Is it possible to not feel love in your whole life?
18) Is there magic in this world?
19) How would the world be without music?
20) Why are humans so attracted to sweet things?

Identifying Questions and Hypotheses

The experiment that I found is about liquid water flowing on today's Mars. The sturdiest evidence yet of liquid water flowing intermittently on present-day Mars was just found by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). With the image that the MRO provided, scientists believe that the salty brines, which are in the dark streaks on the surface of Mars, show that salty water is flowing on Mars. The link to the original study is http://www.livescience.com/52321-photos-mars-flowing-water.html

The question of this experiment is if water is actually flowing on the planet Mars. The hypothesis to that question is yes, water is flowing on the planet Mars.

If there are salty brines in the dark streaks that show up on the planet Mars, then there is salty water flowing on the planet.

Cheese Lab

	Time to Curdle (Minutes)
Curdling Agent:	Chymosin	rennin	buttermilk	milk (control)
Acid	5	5	5
Base	20
pH control	15	10
Cold
Hot	5	5
temp control	10	10

You, my supervisor, wants to know what the optimal conditions and curdling agents for making cheese are and I have the answer for you. I found that warm and acidic (pH control) atmospheres are the optimal conditions for making cheese. As you see in my graph and table, the shortest time that chymosin, rennin, and buttermilk, started having curdles is 5 minutes. The curdling agents only started to curdle by 5 minutes in certain conditions: Acid and Hot. This evidence supports my claim because these are the fastest time that curdling started to occur and these times only occurred in a acidic and hot environment. I also found that the best curdling agent for making cheese is chymosin. Except for “Cold”, chymosin curdled in every kind of condition. This evidence supports my claim because chymosin is the curdling agent that curdled the most which proves that the best curdling agent for making cheese is chymosin.

One error that might’ve slightly messed up the data is the accuracy of the initial time. The initial time wasn’t exactly when the curdling agents was put in its conditions. When we started the time, the curdling agent still wasn’t in its condition yet; therefore, the initial time was a bit earlier than what it should’ve been. This error might have affected our results by not allowing the curdling agents enough time to actually start curdling. Another error that could’ve occur in this lab was the condition of the temperature control. With this condition, someone had to put the curdling agent below their armpit. This would not result accurately because the temperature of each person’s armpit varies widely, therefore giving the curdling agent being tested an advantage of curdling sooner if one’s armpit is hotter than the others . Someone wearing a sweatshirt would cause a hotter temperature for the curdling agent then someone who put it against their bare skin. Someone that just got back from PE would cause a hotter temperature than someone who just got out of a air conditioned room.  This error would’ve affected the accuracy of our results by giving certain curdling agents the advantage to curdle faster because of the hotter temperature of the member’s armpit.

In order to improve the experimental procedure and reduce/minimize errors, I would recommend always keeping track of the time and clearly splitting up who’s doing what at the start of the lab. Always keeping track of time will give you more accurate results and clearly splitting up who’s doing what at the start of the lab will help your group steer clear from any confusion of what’s been done and what hasn’t.

The purpose of this lab was to become more familiar with enzymes and how they’re important and used in everyday life. It was also to become more familiar with what acids, bases, and pH are and how the conditions can be important in everyday life. In this lab, we got to know more about enzymes, which we had already gone over in class. We also got to see how Acids, Bases, and pH, which we’ve already gone through in class, could be applied in real life by having them as the conditions for the curdling agents.

The outcome learned from this lab could be applied to other situations. For example, if someone wants something to turn sour faster than the natural time then they’ll know that an acidic and hot condition would be the best condition to put it in.

Unit 2 Reflection

Unit 2 was about Miniature Biology, it was about how increasing molecular complexity serves as the building blocks for life. The first essential understanding was the Nature of Matter. For this section, I had a fairly easy time learning about the atom and its structure. I also had a easy time learning about elements, including the Periodic Table, and Compounds/Molecules. This was mostly a review for me for I've gone through these topics before in school. It started getting difficult in Chemical bonds and its type. I've never gone through this topic before so it was sort of difficult for me. Though it was a bit difficult, I understood it in the end. The second essential understanding was Water. In this topic, I learned about the properties of water, why water is so attractive, and why water is great for making solutions. It was a little difficult when learning about the properties of water and why its so attractive but I soon got it. Learning why water is so great for making solutions, though, wasn't very difficult for me. I've made solutions before and have figured out myself that water is a great component to add in solutions. Also, most of what was taught in this section, I've been taught before in previous classes. 

From this experience, I've learned how to managed my time more carefully when in a lab and also how to split work so that each person has something to do. I've also learned to be more careful when reading instructions and to fully understand steps before actually doing them. 

Sweetness Lab

The purpose of this lab was to find how the structure of a carbohydrate affects its taste (sweetness). I believe that the Monosaccharide carbohydrates were the sweetest, the Disaccharide carbohydrates were the second sweetest, and the Polysaccharide carbohydrates were the least sweet. I believe that the Monosaccharide carbohydrates are the sweetest, when in comparison with all the other types of carbohydrates, because of the data I collected. In the eight carbohydrates, three were Monosaccharide: Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose. With a sweetness scale that ranges from 0-200, Glucose got a 140, Fructose got a 150 and Galactose got a 120. These were the three sweetest in the eight total carbohydrates. This data supports my claim because the ratings of Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose, all Monosaccharide, are all higher then the other carbohydrates. With the Disaccharides carbohydrates, they were definitely the second sweetest when compared with all the other types of carbohydrates. There were three Disaccharide carbohydrates: Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose. Again, with a scale that ranges 0-200, Sucrose got a rating of 100, Maltose got a 15 and Lactose got a 55. This data supports my claim because the ratings of Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose, all Disaccharides, were higher then the ratings of Polysaccharide carbohydrates but still lower then the ratings of Monosaccharide carbohydrates. The Polysaccharide carbohydrates were the least sweetest when compared with the Disaccharide and Monosaccharide carbohydrates. There were only two Polysaccharide carbohydrates: Starch and Cellulose. Again with the scale that ranges from 0 to 200, starch got a rating of 10 and cellulose got the rating of 0. This data supports my claim because the ratings of Starch and Cellulose, all Polysaccharides, are the lowest out of all the other carbohydrates.

Carbohydrate structure (shape) might affect how they are used by cells/organisms because depending on whether it's a monosaccharide, disaccharide or polysaccharide carbohydrate, each carbohydrate structure is different therefore each carbohydrate has a different degree of sweetness and is used for something else.

My group and I didn't have the exact same ratings for each sample. The rating of the same samples could be different for different tasters because each person has their own unique sense of taste, some testers might have a higher expectation for how sweet something should be (therefore lowering the degree of sweetness more than others), and some might have washed the taste out of their mouth before the sweetness could actually set in.

Our taste buds causes us to taste sweetness. According to liveScience, there is a chemical messenger in our taste buds called neuropeptide Y. This chemical messenger signals the brain when something sweet is being eaten. While cholecystokinin, another chemical messenger, signals the brain when something bitter is being eaten. With this information in mind, I believe that some tasters could rank the sweetness of the same samples differently because some peoples chemical messengers might be weaker then other, therefore not being able to signal the brain if something sweet or bitter is being eaten.

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